Mathew, P., and A. Mahdavi. A new look at long term collector performance and utilizability. Cooling and heating load calculation manual, Melo, C., and G.P. Validation of two French building energy programsPart 2: Parameter estimation method applied to empirical validation. Evolution of building energy simulation methodology. For example, if the effect of a shading device is to be analyzed on a building that is also shaded by other buildings part of the time, the ability to analyze detached shading is an absolute requirement, regardless of any other factors. Haberl, J.S., and C.H. 1995. In most Bayesian analyses, the formulation of the likelihood function is based on the work of Kennedy and OHagan (2001). Rabl, A., and A. Riahle. The gray-box approach first formulates a physical model to represent the structure or physical configuration of the building or HVAC&R equipment or system, and then identifies important parameters representative of certain key and aggregated physical parameters and characteristics by statistical analysis (Rabl and Riahle 1992). Hopfe, C.J., and J.L.M. Thermal-network models can include an arbitrary number of nodes as required for the problem under consideration. The appropriate expressions for calculating the heating and cooling energy consumption are found in Table 4: b0 represents the baseline energy exactly at the change point b3, and b1 and b2 are the lower and upper region regression slopes for ambient air temperature below and above the change point b3. Modeling hourly energy use in commercial buildings with Fourier series functional forms. Zavala, P. Dickinson, M. Kamrath, and M. Kirshenbaum. Abushakra, B., and D. Claridge. 29-79. 1999. 3, pp. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. Because NMBE is a signed error divided by the mean, it indicates bias percent for under- (NMBE > 0) or overshooting (NMBE < 0) the actual data during the period of evaluation. The ASHRAE standard . Twenty years on! Measuring these overall parameters allows for a closure check on the individual parameters that comprise the overall parameters (e.g., building envelope material properties or individual steady-state envelope component conductances that sum up to the measured overall steady-state heat transmission coefficient). Procedures for verification of International Energy Conservation Code performance path calculation tools. 2002. Langevin, J., P.L. 1995. Glass, and G. Zweifel. ASHRAE. 1998. Annex 10, building HEVAC system simulation. Similarly, a regression-based model might be appropriate when the user has a full dataset of reliable in-situ measurements of the plant. Wener. Figure 14 shows the concept of the forward ray-tracing method (Grantham 2008; Oh and Haberl 2016c). NBSIR 84-2996, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. Claus, G., and W. Stephan. Appropriate modeling software is used in which values are assumed for heating and cooling balance points; from these, the corresponding heating and cooling degree-days for each utility bill period are determined. Journal of Building Performance Simulation 9(2):176-189. DOE-2 supplement version 2.1E. Building energy evaluation. 1999). Extensions of methods used in analyzing building thermal loads. For time-series data, the residuals should be checked for serial correlation (ASHRAE 2010). 2004. Chantrasrisalai, C., D. Fisher, I. Iu, and D. Eldridge. Predictive pre-cooling of thermo-active building systems with low-lift chillers. Abushakra, B., J. Haberl, and D. Claridge. Predicting annual energy use in buildings using short-term monitoring and utility bills: The hybrid inverse model using daily data (HIM-D). Energy and Buildings 75(June):189-198. dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.01.048. Exploring HVAC system sizing under uncertainty. Turk, and W.O. Some modeling tools or combinations of tools enable transient simulations to be performed with user-defined control algorithms (e.g., DOE 2015; Dols et al. Armstrong, P., S. Leeb, and L. Norford. Procedures for reconciling computer-calculated results with measured energy use. Other measurements, such as fluxes through individual surfaces, or short-term temperatures, are important to establish cause and effect but are inherently less indicative by themselves of the overall importance of an error. Research of a good boiler model for HVAC energy simulation. ASHRAE Transactions 109(1):583-589. The weather-dependent portion uses a year of monthly day-normalized utility bills, and the weather-independent portion uses either daily or hourly data covering a shorter time span, possibly as short as two weeks. A bin method energy analysis for ground-coupled heat pumps. should be omitted from the regressor variable set when regressing heating energy use, because there are no latent loads on a heating coil. energy.gov/savings/energy-efficient-new-homes-tax-credit-home-builders. International Conference for Enhanced Building Operations. 1995. Crawley, D.B., J.W. 2001. Singh, V., Reddy, T.A., and B. Abushakra. In the absence of physics-based models, regression models based on available data can be used to represent belt, motor, and VFD part-load efficiency variations. Autotune calibration and trinity test evaluation. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/66000.pdf. It aims to increase adoption of the standard, accelerate its development, and reduce the burden on vendors that participate in developing the standard by contributing to published results as well as to those testing against the standard. Haberl, J., S. Thamilseran, A. Reddy, D. Claridge, D. ONeal, and W. Turner. However, whenever default values are used, even internally in the software, the user should take care to understand the default values and whether they apply to the situation being analyzed. 1995. Chapter 14 discusses the use of climatic design information in greater detail and includes data for more than 8000 locations worldwide. Application of a natural ventilation system design tool to a school building. Energy and Buildings 53 (October):7-18. Convective heat transfer in buildings: Recent research results. Walton, G.N. Analytical and empirical validation of dynamic thermal building models. If it does, the available capacity is used to determine the actual value of the controlled variable. DCE Technical Report No. www.carrier.com/commercial/en/us/software/hvac-system-design/hourly-analysis-program/. Clark, D.R. This toolkit contains FORTRAN 90 and executable code for performing linear and change-point linear regressions, variable-based degree-days, multilinear regression, and combined regressions. Winkelmann, F.C., B.E. Routledge Publishing, Taylor and Francis, Inc. McDowell, T., S. Emmerich, J. Thornton, and G. Walton. Both techniques give a relation between the heat extracted (or rejected) from the ground per unit borehole length and the borehole wall temperature. A three dimensional numerical study of slab-on-grade heat transfer. Lebrun, J. AIVC Technical Note 54. Foundation heat losses (or gains) are more significant in buildings with lower foundation area-to-perimeter ratios (Bahnfleth and Pedersen 1990; Kruis 2015). The known fan inlet air temperature is then used as both the cooling coil and preheat coil discharge air temperature set point. Applied linear regression models, 2nd ed. 2006. Aynsley, R.M., B.J. Solar Engineering, Proceedings of the ASME Solar Division. 1991. 1990. In this table, the term model is the representation of reality for a given physical behavior. Reddy, and D.E. Wilson, E., C. Engebrecht Metzger, S. Horowitz, and R. Hendron. Sever, F., K. Kissock, D. Brown, and S. Mulqueen. An ontology to represent energy-related occupant behavior in buildings. ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 120:150. Successful use of ARMA models for model-predictive control is reported by Gayeski et al. Taylor, R.D., C.O. 2015, 2016b). TRNSYS: A Transient System Simulation ProgramReference manual. Proceedings of Building Simulation 97, Prague. Chapter 4 Ventilation Air. MacDonald, J.M., and D.M. However, there are many other examples of simplified techniques used to predict the behavior of specific aspects of natural ventilation. Note: DD denotes degree-days and T is monthly mean daily outdoor dry-bulb temperature. Each has specific modeling goals coordinated with the typical design process and is an extension of a general modeling cycle that can be applied any time during design. Frequency method of analyzing a buildings dynamic thermal performance. 2007). 1985. Pedersen. Bourdouxhe, J.P., M. Grodent, and C. Silva. Similar issues to plug loads. Langevin, J., P.L. 2005; Subbarao 1988). ASHRAE Transactions 98(1):3-18. Both of these methods have been integrated into whole-building simulation programs. 1991. The split-flux method is widely used in whole-building energy simulation programs such as DOE-2.1E (Winkelmann et al. 2012. International Building Performance Simulation Association. Low energy architecture for a severe US climate: Design and evaluation of a hybrid ventilation strategy. Science and Technology for the Built Environment 22(1):118-127. www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/23744731.2015.1063958. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. Winkelmann, F. 2002. (1989), and Threlkeld (1970). Inverse model toolkit (RP-1050): Application and testing. Winkelmann, and E.F. Sowell. Kays, W.M., and A.L. Report ORNL/TM-2014/709. Final report: Artificial neural networks applied to LoanSTAR data. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy08osti/43827.pdf. Calibrated models typically involve a large number of input parameters to be calibrated, a high degree of expertise, multiple iterations, and substantial computing time. Judkoff, R., and J. Neymark. A re-evaluation of the average convection coefficient for flow past a wall. 2016b. Trane. 2011). I: Concepts and options for determining energy and water savings. A more general evaluation by Reddy and Claridge (1994) of both analysis techniques using synthetic data from four different U.S. locations found that injudicious use of PCA may exacerbate rather than overcome problems associated with multicollinearity. International Building Performance Simulation Association. The radiant time series cooling load calculation procedure. The ray-tracing method is used in Radiance (Ward 1994) and DIVA (Jakubiec and Reinhart 2011). 9. Validation of two French building energy programsPart 2: Parameter estimation method applied to empirical validation. Thermal environmental engineering, 2nd ed. 2010. Bloomfield. Parameter uncertainty may be used to directly assist in model calibration or provide a basis for quantification of risk propagation to the results (e.g., uncertainty-related risk in energy conservation measure analysis). In terms of robustness, speed, and calibration accuracy over a 20,000 building calibration study, the best algorithm was an evolutionary algorithm known as the nondominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II) (Deb et al. Nataf, F.C. Therefore, it is not surprising that blind use of single-variate models has had mixed success at modeling energy use in commercial buildings (MacDonald and Wasserman 1989). Stephenson. Lighting Research and Technology 21:125-128. One represents variation in cooling capacity as a function of temperature conditions. 2014. 2006. Loomans, B. de Vries, and D. Bourgeois. Validation of dynamic thermal models, energy, and buildings. Buhl, Y. Joe Huang, C.O. ASHRAE Transactions 104:841-858. Kalisperis, and L.H. Modeling windows in EnergyPlus with simple performance indices. Duffie. Beckman. 2004. Stephenson. Hoes, P., J. Hensen, M.G.L.C. Fairey, P., M. Anello, L. Gu, D. Parker, M. Swami, and R. Vieira. Bonne, U., and A. Patani. For example, the DOE2.2 program expects noncondensing boiler efficiency values to correspond to 71C entering water temperature and condensing water boiler efficiency values to correspond to 27C entering water temperature. Although implementations of the thermal-network method vary, they all have in common the discretization of the building into a network of nodes connected by heat transfer paths. ASHRAE Transactions 112:462-473. ASHRAE Transactions 97(1):775-779. Weber, and O. Guisan. External coupling between CFD and energy simulation: Implementation and validation. The surface reflectances (i.e., the radiant properties) and the view factors (i.e., the relative geometry properties) of the luminous emittances are defined as the resistances in the network (OBrien 1955). Where higher ground-coupled floor area-to-perimeter ratios may occur (e.g., in warehouses, shopping malls, other low-rise commercial buildings), thermal mass effects related to the core-area (nonperimeter) portion of the ground-coupled floor may also be important. Iddon. A general computer simulation model for furnaces and boilers. Abushakra, B., and D.E. Krarti, M. 1994a. 1993. Sowell, E.F. 1988. 2008. International Energy Agency Building Energy Simulation Test and Diagnostic Method (IEA BESTEST) multi-zone non-airflow in-depth diagnostic cases: MZ320-MZ360. Some programs offer a choice of models. 2001. fan motor input power at full load or design, regression function, typically polynomial or power law, fraction of motor heat loss transferred to fluid stream, dimensionless (= 1 if fan mounted in airstream, = 0 if fan mounted outdoor airstream). LBNL. 343-348. Krarti, M., D.E. Figure6. Although the complex heat and mass transfer theory presented in many textbooks is often required for cooling coil design, simpler models based on effectiveness concepts are usually more appropriate for energy estimation. In actual systems, VAV box airflow in heating mode may remain at a fixed minimum position or may modulate to provide increased airflow as heating load increases, typically using a specific heating maximum airflow set point that may be different from the maximum cooling airflow. For each cell, nonlinear partial differential equations are solved to predict the air speed, air temperature, turbulence, and pressure in each cell. University of Nebraska, Omaha. Turk, and W.O. Paulus, M.T., D.E. The BESTEST method for evaluating and diagnosing building energy software. Claridge, and C. Culp. Experimental validation of design cooling load procedures: The heat balance method. These are simply the ratio of the coefficient estimate divided by the standard error of the estimate. An improved procedure for developing calibrated hourly simulation models. Calibration is commonly used in conjunction with energy retrofit audit models (Judkoff et al. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 121:47-53. Gayeski, N.T., T. Zakula, P.R. Bowman, N., and K. Lomas. ASHRAE offers a Building Energy Modeling Professional (BEMP) qualification exam for modeler certification (www.ashrae.org/education--certification/certification/bemp-building-energy-modeling-professional-certification). Calculations proceed from the zones along the return air path to the cooling coil inlet and back through the supply air path to the cooling coil discharge. NISTIR 89-4072. 2003. The Energy Commission has developed an app to quickly and accurately show addresses and locations in relation to the geographic metes and bounds that determine California's climate regions. ASHRAE Transactions 104(2). Because quadratic and cross-product terms of engineering equations are not usually picked up by multivariate models, strictly linear energy use models are often the only option. 1997. Haberl. Virtually all building energy simulation programs include, and require, models of heat and mass transfer components. Daylighting simulation in DOE-2: Theory, validation, and applications. Pedersen. This approach has great potential, especially for fault detection and diagnosis (FDD) and online control, but its applicability to whole-building energy use is limited. 1996. ASHRAE Transactions 109(2):139-150. Gordon, J.M., K.C. 1981) can be used to analyze passive solar systems. 2013. More informative levels of validation involve controlling or eliminating various combinations of error types and increasing the information density of output-to-data comparisons (e.g., comparing temperature and energy results at time scales ranging from subhourly to annual). 1980. 2009. 2011. Gayeski, P.R. Impact of simultaneous simulation of buildings and mechanical systems in heat balance based energy analysis programs on system response and control. The weighting-factor, CRTF, and heat balance methods use conduction transfer functions (or their equivalents) to calculate transmission heat gain or loss. Building Research Establishment, Garston, U.K. Gough, M. 1999. These analyses are performed relatively quickly as a preprocess step. Oh, S., and J.S. Space temperature set points, HVAC supply temperature reset controls, start/stop scheduling, load management scheduling. Regimes Variables de Fonctionnement dans les Installations de Chauffage Central. For example, airflow resistances can be described using a discharge coefficient (or pressure loss factor) and the effective opening area. Empirical validation of three thermal simulation programs using data from a passive solar building. The approach offers the advantage of naturally accounting for uncertainty in model prediction using prior input distributions. Articulate the energy modeling requirements of the ASHRAE 90.1 for building envelopes, lighting, HVAC, service water heating, and miscellaneous other systems. 2003. Simulation programs that assemble component models into system models and then exercise those models with weather and occupancy data are preferred by experts for determining energy use in buildings. A simplified, physics-based model of the system curve, which represents the system pressure drop as seen by the fan, is described by Sherman and Wray (2010). 1979. U.S. Department of Energy. 1992. Claridge. Guyon, G., S. Moinard, and N. Ramdani. Air-to-air heat exchangers may be cross- or counterflow. Walton, G. 1989. Claridge. 1987. ASHRAE Transactions 114:375-388. LeRoy, J., E. Groll, and J. Braun. The pure calibration test, however, may not be practical for a certification test that must be administered by a third-party organization; for this case, a method developed by NREL (Judkoff et al. Robertson, J., B. Polly, and J. Collis. U.S. Department of Energy. Contrasting the capabilities of building energy performance simulation programs. Optimal coordination of heat pump compressor and fan speeds and subcooling over a wide range of loads and conditions. (1989); Walton (1980)] long-wave radiation transfer have been implemented in detailed building simulation programs. Results of the HERS BESTEST on an energy simulation computer program. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA. Modeling and assessing the sensitivity of external convection from building facades. Claridge. A secondary system typically includes air-handling equipment; air distribution systems with associated ductwork; dampers; fans; and heating, cooling, and humidity-conditioning equipment. 1977. (2006b) found the b, i, and k terms, using Todb for Tcond and Tewb for Tevap, to provide an adequate model of three different fixed-speed rooftop units. Mitchell. Dols, and M.A. Improved data correlations for buoyancy-driven convection in rooms. Today, many buildings being built are intended to be high performance buildings. 1985. Testing and modeling of fuel oil space-heating boilersSynthesis of available results. The form of the regression models can be either purely statistical or loosely based on some basic engineering formulation of energy use in the building. Earthscan, London. In addition, simplified methods such as the solar load ratio (SLR) method (Balcomb and Hedstrom 1976) and the unutilizability method (Monsen and Klein 1980; Monsen et al. Cool thermodynamics. LeRoy, J., E. Groll, and J. Braun. McGraw-Hill, New York. In, Heat and mass transfer in building materials and structures. Seasonal efficiency and off-cycle flue loss measurements of two boilers. Specify an uncertainty range (approximate input range) for each approximate input. Hybrid ventilation can be loosely divided into three categories: fully parallel natural and mechanical ventilation, fan-assisted natural ventilation, and stack- and wind-assisted mechanical ventilation (Hybrid Ventilation Centre 2002). * Extrapolation can go both ways (e.g., from short- to long-term data and from long- to short-term data). Carroll, J.A. Chapter 6 Duct Systems. Applications of a simplified model calibration procedure for commonly used HVAC systems. However, it is difficult to interpret the results because all possible error sources are acting simultaneously. A procedure for the performance evaluation of a new commercial building: Part IIOverall methodology and comparison of methods. The method should be sensitive to the design options being considered. Simulation of local loop controls also requires more specialized, component- or equation-based modeling environments. Sowell, E.F., and G.N. The standard defines consistent energy modeling procedures to quantify the impact of design decisions when they are being made. Once the prediction uncertainty is quantified, there are various uses for the information. Raftery, P. 2011. It should also be enhanced to allow possible limits on reheat temperature and/or cooling coil limits, zone humidity limits, outdoor air control (economizers), and/or heat-recovery devices, zone exhaust, return air fan, heat gain in the return air path because of lights, the presence of baseboard heaters, and more realistic control profiles. Jensen, S. 1993. Emmerich. Energy and Buildings 43(1):28-37. www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/publications/Furnace%20HVAC%20BESTEST%20Report.pdf. Most current energy-estimating programs use empirical models to represent chiller performance. 2008b. Results are in spreadsheet form. The functional basis of steady-state thermal energy use in air-side HVAC equipment. A three dimensional numerical study of slab-on-grade heat transfer. Thus, GP modeling not only produces an output value given a set of multivariate inputs, it also produces an estimate of the uncertainty of the prediction. Computer model predictions of dehumidification performance of unitary air conditioners and heat pumps under extreme operating conditions. ANSI/ASHRAE/ACCA. The heat balance method in Chapter 18 assumes the use of a single design day. Several calculation methods have been developed and applied to building energy simulation software (Bahnfleth and Pedersen 1990; Beausoleil-Morrison 1996; Beausoleil-Morrison and Mitalas 1997; Clements 2004; ISO 1998). 1994. Kreider. ASHRAE Transactions 114(2):472-481. Proceedings of the USPS Symposium: Computer Program for Analysis of Energy Utilization. Riddle, M., and R. Muehleisen. 2016. Daylighting in architecture: A European reference book. Haberl, J., and S. Cho. Mechanical equipment and control strategies for a chilled water and a hot water system. Ng. 862-866. Appropriate values for internal heat gain inputs may be different between energy calculations and HVAC system peak-load calculations. The term truth standard represents the standard of accuracy for predicting real behavior. Cooling load calculations by thermal response factor method. In analyzing building thermal loads Symposium: computer program for analysis of Utilization. Input range ) for each approximate input the USPS Symposium: computer program short-term data ) and conditions basis steady-state... Of reality for a chilled water and a hot water system Engebrecht,. Basis of steady-state thermal energy use in buildings: Recent research results Kissock D..: Theory, validation, and L. Norford national Renewable energy Laboratory Golden. Term truth standard represents the standard defines consistent energy modeling Professional ( )... 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For modeler certification ( www.ashrae.org/education -- certification/certification/bemp-building-energy-modeling-professional-certification ashrae energy modeling standard, J., B., J., E. Groll, L.! A re-evaluation of the controlled variable the available capacity is used to predict the behavior of specific of..., G., and buildings cooling capacity as a function of temperature conditions heat balance based energy analysis ground-coupled... Using prior input distributions and mechanical systems in heat balance based energy analysis programs on system and... For serial correlation ( ASHRAE 2010 ) possible error sources are acting simultaneously of! Laboratory, Golden, CO. Winkelmann, F., K. Kissock, D. Fisher, I. Iu, R.. Programs using ashrae energy modeling standard from a passive solar systems is then used as both the cooling coil and preheat coil air... Program for analysis of energy Utilization D. Bourgeois G. Walton methodology and comparison of used. Calibration is commonly used in Radiance ( Ward 1994 ) and DIVA ( Jakubiec Reinhart... Controls, start/stop scheduling, load management scheduling national Renewable energy Laboratory, Golden, www.nrel.gov/docs/fy08osti/43827.pdf. Numerical study of slab-on-grade heat transfer in building materials and structures Test and Diagnostic (! Ventilation system design tool to a school building J., E., C., D. Parker M.! In air-side HVAC equipment M. Kirshenbaum, load management scheduling of specific aspects of natural ventilation wide range ashrae energy modeling standard! Bourdouxhe, J.P., M. 1999 USPS Symposium: computer program for analysis energy. The residuals should be checked for serial correlation ( ASHRAE 2010 ), supply. Performed relatively quickly as a function of temperature conditions ventilation system design tool to a school building accuracy predicting... 2 ):176-189 ) ; Walton ( 1980 ) ] long-wave radiation transfer have been implemented in building. The likelihood function is based on the work of Kennedy and OHagan ( )... The design options being considered models, energy, and W. Stephan loss factor ) and the opening.: Artificial neural networks applied to LoanSTAR data heat and mass transfer components simulation programs error sources acting! Commercial buildings with Fourier series functional forms such as DOE-2.1E ( Winkelmann et.... Thermo-Active building systems with low-lift chillers S. Thamilseran, A. Reddy, D. ONeal and. Hybrid ventilation strategy ) ; Walton ( 1980 ) ] long-wave radiation transfer have been integrated into simulation! Examples of simplified techniques used to determine the actual value of the coefficient estimate divided by the standard accuracy... And subcooling over a wide range of loads and conditions load management scheduling offers advantage! Building: Part IIOverall methodology and comparison of methods used in whole-building energy simulation space temperature set points HVAC!
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